Examining the achievements of Thutmose III: Using ChatGPT to provide more detail for existing articles

Relief depicting Thutmose III at Deir_el-Bahari courtesy of
Wikimedia Commons contributor Hedwig Storch

I have run a number of experiments using ChatGPT to analyze various aspects of ancient culture. My primary concerns have revolved around the sources ChatGPT has used for its training model. Its “provide references” feature appears to be more of a suggested reading list generated by using an “OR” search of keywords specified in your query. This procedure will generate a list of sources with at least some relationship to your query but not a list of sources with the specific context I require. So, I decided to take a different approach and begin my research with an existing article and see how much additional detail I could glean using ChatGPT. That way I begin with a known source and work from its already-defined topics. I read a solid article, Thutmoses III, Famed Warrior King of Ancient Egypt, written by Aleksa Vučković. I know enough about the major achievements of Thutmoses III and the famous battle of Megiddo to hopefully recognize inconsistencies in the responses generated by ChatGPT but I am not an expert on the topic. I don't know if Vučković had help from ChatGPT either but the points he raises are consistent with what I have learned from courses about ancient Egypt including a course entitled Superpowers of the Ancient Near East, Famous Battles of the Ancient World, and journal articles about Thutmose III. https://www.ancient-origins.net/hist.../thutmose-iii-0018105 I enjoy specific details, though, so I thought this piece would be a good one to use to examine the achievements of Thutmose III in more detail using ChatGPT. Although Thutmose III's reign officially began in 1479 BCE, he was only a child of two at the time he was crowned and his father's Great Royal Wife Hatshepsut served first as regent and later as pharaoh until Thutmose III reached the age of 25. Some of the technological achievements mentioned by ChatGPT could have been initiated during her rule (especially some of the building projects) rather than his independent rule but are credited to him by historical sources. But I was still impressed with the level of detail provided by the AI: Mary (opening query): What did the pharaoh Thutmosis III achieve during his reign? Thutmose III was one of ancient Egypt's greatest pharaohs, who ruled from around 1479 to 1425 BCE. During his reign, he accomplished several significant achievements, including: Military Conquests: Thutmose III was a great military leader who led several successful campaigns, expanding the Egyptian empire's boundaries to their greatest extent. He conducted numerous military campaigns, including the famous Battle of Megiddo, where he defeated a coalition of Canaanite kings. Building Projects: Thutmose III also carried out extensive building projects, including the construction of several temples and monuments throughout Egypt. One of his most famous buildings was the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak. Religious Reforms: Thutmose III also undertook several religious reforms, aimed at strengthening the position of the god Amun, who he believed had helped him in his military campaigns. As a result, Amun became one of the most powerful deities in the Egyptian pantheon. Cultural and Scientific Developments: Thutmose III was also a patron of the arts and sciences, and he commissioned many works of art, including statues and reliefs. He also supported the work of the great Egyptian astronomer, Amenemhet, who calculated the length of the year with remarkable accuracy. Overall, Thutmose III's reign was a time of great expansion and cultural achievement, which helped shape the course of ancient Egyptian history. – ChatGPT Mary: List the military campaigns of Thutmosis III. Thutmose III was a successful military commander who led numerous campaigns during his reign. Some of the most significant military campaigns of Thutmose III include: Campaign in Nubia (Year 22): In this campaign, Thutmose III led an army into Nubia, subduing several tribes and extending Egyptian control over the region. Campaign in Megiddo (Year 23): This was one of Thutmose III's most famous campaigns. He led an army through the coastal plain of Palestine, where he faced a coalition of Canaanite kings at Megiddo. Thutmose III emerged victorious, and this victory is considered one of the greatest military achievements in ancient Egyptian history. Campaign in Syria (Year 33): In this campaign, Thutmose III led his army to the Euphrates River, defeating the Mitanni and their allies, and bringing large portions of Syria under Egyptian control. Campaigns in Canaan and Palestine (Years 34-42): Thutmose III conducted a series of campaigns in Canaan and Palestine, establishing Egyptian dominance over the region and capturing several cities, including Gaza, Joppa, and Ashkelon. Campaign against the Hittites (Year 42): Thutmose III led an army into Syria to confront the Hittites, who had been causing problems for Egypt's Syrian vassals. Although the campaign did not result in a major battle, it helped to stabilize the region and secure Egyptian control over its territories. These campaigns helped establish Thutmose III as one of the greatest military leaders in ancient history and expanded the Egyptian empire's borders to their greatest extent. [Note: I read that ChatGPT has a built-in restriction on the amount of material to include in a response. This may be why only five of the 17 campaigns were listed.] Original article: "Over the course of 17 campaigns, most - if not all - of his enemies were subdued, the foremost being the Mitanni." Mary: Which enemies did Thutmose III fail to subdue? Thutmose III was a highly successful military leader who waged numerous campaigns throughout his reign, and he was able to conquer many of Egypt's enemies and expand its territory. However, there were a few enemies that he was not able to subdue completely. One of these enemies was the kingdom of Kadesh, which was located in modern-day Syria. Thutmose III waged several campaigns against Kadesh but was not able to conquer it completely. The city remained a thorn in Egypt's side for many years and was eventually conquered by Thutmose's successor, Amenhotep II. [Note: Amenhotep II, known for his physical prowess, is said to have singlehandedly killed 7 rebel Princes at Kadesh, which successfully terminated his first Syrian campaign.] Another enemy that Thutmose III was not able to subdue completely was the kingdom of Mitanni, which was located in modern-day northern Syria and eastern Anatolia. Mitanni was a powerful kingdom that posed a significant threat to Egypt's interests in the region, but Thutmose III was only able to secure a tenuous peace with them rather than defeating them completely. Despite these setbacks, Thutmose III is remembered as one of the greatest military leaders in ancient Egyptian history, and his reign saw Egypt reach the height of its power and influence in the ancient world. ChatGPT Original article: "His first successes began almost immediately after he assumed the throne: he led a campaign deep into modern-day Israel, where he won a masterful battle at Megiddo, defeating the King of Kadesh. With a daring move, he marched his armies to the rear of the Megiddo forces, crushing them decisively...Another contributing factor to Thutmose’s military success is a number of innovations and new technologies that placed him one step ahead of his enemies. Roughly two centuries before his time, Ancient Egypt came under the brief rule of the Hyksos, foreign invaders who brought with them new and never before seen tools and weapons. New unique swords were quickly absorbed by the Egyptians, as well as new forging techniques, as well as powerful two-wheeled war chariots. With all these innovations, the Egyptian army was well suited for conquest." Mary: What strategies were used by Thutmose III at the battle of Megiddo? The Battle of Megiddo was one of the most significant military campaigns of Thutmose III's reign, and it involved a complex set of strategies and tactics that allowed the Egyptian army to achieve a decisive victory over a coalition of Canaanite city-states. One of the key strategies used by Thutmose III at the Battle of Megiddo was the element of surprise. Rather than attacking the city directly, Thutmose III led his army on a long and difficult march through the mountains to the rear of the city, where they could attack from an unexpected direction. This allowed the Egyptian army to catch the Canaanite forces off guard and quickly overwhelm their defenses. Another important strategy used by Thutmose III was the coordination of different units within the Egyptian army. Thutmose III divided his forces into multiple units, each with its own specific objective. This allowed the Egyptian army to attack the city from multiple directions simultaneously, and it prevented the Canaanite forces from being able to focus their defense in any one area. In addition, Thutmose III made use of advanced weapons technology, including the newest and most advanced chariots, to gain a technological advantage over the Canaanite forces. The Egyptian chariots were faster and more maneuverable than those of the Canaanites, and they were equipped with advanced weaponry, such as composite bows and javelins. Overall, the Battle of Megiddo was won through a combination of careful planning, strategic positioning, and advanced weapons technology. Thutmose III was able to use his army's strengths to overcome the Canaanite defenses and achieve a decisive victory that solidified his power and influence in the region. – ChatGPT Mary: (exploring the "advanced weapons technology") What new forging techniques were introduced during the reign of Thutmose III? There is limited information available regarding specific forging techniques introduced during the reign of Thutmose III, but it is known that metallurgy was a highly advanced field during this time period. One of the key technological advancements in metallurgy during Thutmose III's reign was the development of a new type of high-quality bronze. This bronze, known as "hardest bronze," was made by adding arsenic to the alloy, which made it harder and more durable than previous bronze alloys. This new alloy was ideal for use in weapons and armor, and it helped to give the Egyptian army a significant technological advantage over its enemies. Thutmose III was a great patron of the arts, and he commissioned a large number of metal objects, including statues, jewelry, and ceremonial objects. These objects often incorporated intricate designs and patterns, which were created using a variety of techniques, such as engraving and inlay. One of the most notable examples of metalworking during Thutmose III's reign is the golden throne that he commissioned for his wife [should be Step Mother or Regent - the Great Royal Wife of his father], Queen Hatshepsut. The throne was made from a single sheet of beaten gold, and it was decorated with intricate designs and hieroglyphs. [This is an example of an event that probably occurred during the rule of Hatshepsut and not under the actual reign of the adult Thutmose III] Overall, the reign of Thutmose III saw significant advancements in metallurgy, particularly in the development of new alloys and the refinement of metalworking techniques. These advancements helped to establish Egypt as a center of metalworking and decorative arts in the ancient world. Mary: Did the design of swords change during the reign of Thutmose III? There is limited information available about the specific changes to the design of swords during the reign of Thutmose III. However, it is known that metallurgy and weapons technology were highly advanced during this time period, and the Egyptian army was renowned for its mastery of weapons and tactics. During the New Kingdom period, the Egyptian army made use of a wide range of weapons, including swords, axes, spears, and bows. These weapons were made from a variety of materials, including copper, bronze, iron, and wood, and they were often decorated with intricate designs and hieroglyphs. One of the most famous swords from ancient Egypt is the "Khopesh," which was a curved sword with a sickle-shaped blade. The Khopesh was primarily used for slashing and chopping, and it was particularly effective at disarming opponents by hooking their weapons with the curved blade. It is possible that the design of swords and other weapons may have evolved over time, as new materials and techniques were developed. However, there is limited information available about the specific changes that may have occurred during the reign of Thutmose III. Overall, the Egyptian army was renowned for its mastery of weapons technology, and their weapons were highly effective in battle. The design of swords and other weapons may have evolved over time, but the specifics of these changes are not well documented. – ChatGPT Mary: Was the khopesh sword used by common Egyptian warriors? The khopesh sword was primarily used by elite warriors and members of the nobility in ancient Egypt, rather than by common soldiers. It was a prestigious weapon, and its distinctive shape and design made it an icon of Egyptian warfare. The khopesh sword was a symbol of authority and power, and it was often depicted in ceremonial contexts, such as in depictions of pharaohs and other high-ranking officials. However, it was also a functional weapon, and it was highly effective in battle. [Note: the ceremonial nature of the khopesh sword was discussed at length in the course “Superpowers of the Ancient Near East.”] While the khopesh sword was not typically used by common soldiers, there were other types of swords and weapons that were more commonly used by the Egyptian army. These included straight swords, spears, axes, and bows, which were used by soldiers of all ranks. The use of the khopesh sword was primarily limited to the New Kingdom period, which lasted from around 1550 BCE to 1077 BCE. It was a unique weapon that reflected the sophistication and innovation of Egyptian weapons technology during this time period. – ChatGPT Mary: Did the Hyksos introduce the khopesh sword? The origins of the khopesh sword are not entirely clear, and there is some debate among historians about where and when it first emerged. The khopesh sword is a distinctive weapon with a curved blade that was used in ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom period. It is possible that the Hyksos, who were a group of foreign invaders who ruled Egypt for a time during the Second Intermediate Period, introduced the khopesh sword to the Egyptians. The Hyksos were known for their advanced military technology and tactics, and they may have brought new weapons and equipment with them when they invaded Egypt. However, there is also evidence to suggest that the khopesh sword existed in Egypt prior to the Hyksos invasion. Some historians believe that the khopesh was an adaptation of earlier Egyptian swords and sickle-shaped knives, which were used for hunting and ritual purposes. Regardless of its origins, the khopesh sword became a signature weapon of the New Kingdom period, and it was used by Egyptian soldiers and generals in battle. Its distinctive shape and design made it a highly effective weapon in close combat, and it is remembered as one of the most iconic weapons of ancient Egypt. – ChatGPT Mary: How did Egyptian swords differ from the swords used by the Hyksos? The swords used by the ancient Egyptians and the Hyksos invaders were quite different in terms of their design and construction. The swords used by the ancient Egyptians were typically straight and double-edged, with a long, narrow blade and a straight hilt. These swords were often made from bronze or copper, although some were also made from iron later on. In contrast, the swords used by the Hyksos were typically curved and single-edged, with a shorter blade and a curved hilt. These swords were often made from bronze or a composite of bronze and iron, which made them stronger and more durable than the Egyptian swords. The Hyksos swords were also designed for use on horseback, as the Hyksos were skilled horsemen and used their horses to devastating effect in battle. The curved design of their swords allowed them to deliver powerful slashing attacks while riding on horseback, which gave them a significant advantage over their opponents. Overall, the swords used by the ancient Egyptians and the Hyksos were quite different in terms of their design and construction, and each type of sword was suited to the specific needs and tactics of its respective army. – ChatGPT Mary: Were changes made to chariot design during the reign of pharaoh Thutmose III? Yes, during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmose III, changes were made to the design of chariots in ancient Egypt. Thutmose III was known for his military campaigns and his innovative tactics, and he recognized the importance of having a fast and maneuverable chariot in battle. One of the significant changes made to chariot design during his reign was the use of a lightweight, two-wheeled chariot instead of the traditional four-wheeled chariot. The two-wheeled chariot was more maneuverable, allowing the Egyptian army to outflank and outmaneuver their enemies. Additionally, the lightweight design of the two-wheeled chariot made it faster and more agile, which gave the Egyptian army an advantage in battle. Thutmose III was also responsible for the development of new tactics and training methods that maximized the effectiveness of the chariot. He trained his troops to use the chariot as a mobile platform for archery, allowing them to rain arrows down on their enemies from a distance. He also utilized the chariot as a shock weapon, charging into enemy lines to break them up and create openings for his infantry to exploit. Overall, the changes made to chariot design and tactics during the reign of Thutmose III helped to make the Egyptian army one of the most formidable fighting forces of the ancient world. – ChatGPT Mary: How did the chariots used by Thutmose III differ from the original chariots introduced by the Hyksos? The chariots used by Thutmose III were different from the original chariots introduced by the Hyksos, who had invaded and conquered Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period. While the Hyksos chariots were an important innovation in warfare, they were heavy and cumbersome, designed for use on the flat plains of the Near East. The chariots used by Thutmose III were a significant improvement over the Hyksos chariots. They were lightweight and designed for speed and maneuverability, making them ideal for use in the rough terrain of Egypt. They had a simple but effective design, with a lightweight frame made from wood and leather, and a pair of spoked wheels with bronze rims. The chariot was pulled by two horses, which were harnessed in tandem to provide maximum speed and agility. Thutmose III's chariots were also equipped with a quiver for holding arrows, and the charioteer would use a composite bow to shoot arrows at the enemy. The charioteer also had a shield and a short sword for close combat. Overall, the chariots used by Thutmose III were a significant improvement over the original Hyksos chariots. They were faster, lighter, and more maneuverable, making them ideal for use in the challenging terrain of Egypt. The new chariot design and tactics helped the Egyptian army to become one of the most formidable fighting forces of the ancient world. – ChatGPT Original article: "Luckily, we know a lot about Thutmose’s military achievements because of fairly detailed records that survive. Many of his triumphs were inscribed onto the walls of the Temple of Amun in Karnak, accompanied by stunning reliefs of the king subduing his enemies. Furthermore, Thutmose had a royal scribe and a loyal commander, Thanuny, [also known as Tjaneni] who kept meticulous records of his king’s campaigns. Fragments of these scripts allowed us a greater insight into methods of ancient warfare and strategy." Mary: Which type of troops did Thanuny command? Thanuny was an Egyptian general who served during the reign of pharaoh Thutmose III. He is best known for his military campaigns in Nubia and his role in the Battle of Megiddo. According to the inscriptions at Karnak, Thanuny commanded a unit of elite troops known as the "Sherden," which were a group of highly trained and skilled warriors who served as the personal bodyguard of the pharaoh. The Sherden were known for their bravery and ferocity in battle, and they were often used as shock troops in the front lines of the Egyptian army. [Note: The Sherden, possibly Akkadian, were one of the groups of sea peoples who were active in the eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age, and they were known for their maritime skills and prowess as warriors. They were known to hire out as mercenaries. A further query about these troops, however, included the statement “The role of the Sherden in Thanuny's campaigns is not specifically documented, but it is likely that they played an important role in the Egyptian army's efforts to maintain control over the eastern Mediterranean region.” This would seem to contradict the statement that the inscriptions at Karnak recorded a unit of elite troops known as the Sherden that were commanded by Thanuny. According to N. Grimal’s “A History of Ancient Egypt, pp. 250-253, the first certain mention of the Sherden is found in the records of Ramesses II (ruled 1279-1213 BCE), who defeated them in his second year (1278 BCE) when they attempted to raid Egypt's coast. The pharaoh subsequently incorporated many of these warriors into his personal guard. Ramesses II was a later New Kingdom pharaoh although these “Sea Peoples” had been appearing in fragmentary historical and iconographic records (ancient Egyptian and Ugaritic) from the Eastern Mediterranean since the 2nd millennium BCE. According to Jeffrey P. Emanuel in his article "Sherden from the Sea: The arrival, integration, and acculturation of a Sea People".Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 5 (1): 14–27, the earliest known mention of the Sherden is in correspondence between Rib-Hadda, mayor (hazannu) of Byblos, to the Pharaoh Amenhotep III known as Akhenaten in the 14th century BCE. But, it is plausible] In addition to commanding the Sherden, Thanuny also led a larger contingent of soldiers, which included charioteers, archers, and infantry. His troops were well-trained and well-equipped, and they played a crucial role in the Egyptian victories in Nubia and at the Battle of Megiddo. Overall, Thanuny was a highly respected and skilled commander who played a key role in the military campaigns of Thutmose III. His leadership of the Sherden and other elite troops helped to secure the pharaoh's power and influence in the region, and he is remembered as one of the most important generals of the New Kingdom period. – ChatGPT Mary: How were the Sherden armed? The Sherden were a group of elite warriors who served as the personal bodyguard of the pharaoh during the New Kingdom period of ancient Egypt. They were known for their bravery and skill in battle, and they played a crucial role in securing the power and influence of the pharaoh. According to historical records and artistic depictions, the Sherden were typically armed with a variety of weapons, including: Swords: The Sherden were known for their proficiency with swords, and they often carried curved swords, such as the khopesh, which were highly effective in close combat. Shields: The Sherden carried large shields made of wood or animal hide, which provided protection against enemy attacks. Axes: The Sherden were also known to carry battle axes, which were used for both offense and defense. Javelins: The Sherden were skilled at throwing javelins, which were used to weaken enemy formations and disrupt their defenses. Bows: Some Sherden were also trained in the use of the bow and arrow, which could be used for both long-range attacks and for hunting. Overall, the Sherden were highly skilled and versatile warriors who were armed with a variety of weapons that allowed them to adapt to different combat situations. Their skill and bravery made them a highly respected and feared unit within the Egyptian army. – ChatGPT Original article: "Thutmose III was also inclined to spur other developments within Egypt as well. New construction projects were begun, and new technologies mastered. Glass-making was refined, and a number of new lavish buildings were raised in Karnak. Several monumental obelisks from this time also survive." Mary: How did glass-making change during the reign of Thutmose III? During the reign of Thutmose III, there were significant advancements in glass-making technology in ancient Egypt. Glass had been produced in Egypt since the late third millennium BCE, but it was during the New Kingdom period that the technology for making glass was significantly improved. One of the most significant changes in glass-making during Thutmose III's reign was the development of a new technique for producing colored glass. Prior to this, colored glass was made by adding metallic oxides to the glass mixture, but this resulted in only a limited range of colors. The new technique involved melting together different colored glass rods to create a patterned effect, which allowed for a wider range of colors and designs. Another innovation in glass-making during Thutmose III's reign was the use of molds to create more complex shapes and designs. This allowed glassmakers to produce intricate vessels and figurines, which were highly prized for their beauty and craftsmanship. Thutmose III was a patron of the arts, and he commissioned a large number of glass objects, including vessels, figurines, and jewelry. Many of these objects were highly decorative, and they often incorporated intricate designs and patterns, which were created using the new techniques of glass-making. Overall, the advancements in glass-making during Thutmose III's reign helped to establish Egypt as a center of glass production in the ancient world. The development of new techniques and technologies helped to expand the range of colors and designs available to glassmakers, and this had a significant impact on the decorative arts of the time. Mary: List the Building projects of the pharaoh Thutmose III. Thutmose III was not only a successful military leader but also a prolific builder. He commissioned many building projects throughout Egypt, including: Great Temple of Amun at Karnak: Thutmose III made significant additions to the temple of Amun at Karnak, including the Festival Hall, which was used for religious celebrations. Temple of Mut at Karnak: Thutmose III built the Temple of Mut at Karnak, dedicated to the goddess Mut, the wife of Amun. Temple of Montu at Armant: Thutmose III expanded the Temple of Montu at Armant, dedicated to the god of war, Montu. The Ramesseum: Thutmose III began construction on the Ramesseum, a temple complex dedicated to his grandfather, Ramesses I. Palace at Malkata: Thutmose III built a palace at Malkata, located on the west bank of the Nile. The palace was used for the pharaoh's summer residence. Tomb in the Valley of the Kings: Thutmose III built a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings, although he was eventually buried elsewhere. These building projects demonstrate Thutmose III's commitment to promoting Egyptian culture and religion and his desire to leave a lasting legacy for future generations. – ChatGPT Mary: Describe the religious reforms of Thutmosis III. Thutmose III is known for his religious reforms, which aimed to promote the god Amun's worship and elevate his position within the Egyptian pantheon. Some of the key religious reforms of Thutmose III include: Promoting the Cult of Amun: Thutmose III believed that Amun had aided him in his military campaigns, and so he sought to promote the god's worship throughout Egypt. He commissioned many temples dedicated to Amun and encouraged his subjects to worship the god. Consolidating the Power of the Priesthood: Thutmose III recognized the power of the priesthood in Egypt and sought to consolidate their power under the authority of the pharaoh. He granted many privileges to the priests of Amun and appointed high-ranking officials to oversee religious affairs. Encouraging Pilgrimage: Thutmose III encouraged pilgrimage to the major religious centers throughout Egypt, including the temple of Amun at Karnak. He believed that these pilgrimages would help to reinforce the religious and cultural unity of the country. Establishing Religious Festivals: Thutmose III established many religious festivals, including the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, which was held annually to celebrate the New Year and the rejuvenation of the land. Overall, Thutmose III's religious reforms aimed to promote the worship of Amun and to strengthen the authority of the pharaoh over religious affairs. His efforts helped to solidify the power of the priesthood and reinforce the central role of religion in Egyptian culture. Mary: What scientific developments occurred during the reign of Thutmosis III? During the reign of Thutmose III, there were no significant scientific developments in the modern sense of the term. However, there were some notable advancements in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Some of these developments include: Astronomy: Egyptian astronomers during the time of Thutmose III were able to calculate the length of the solar year to within a few minutes. They also tracked the movements of the stars and planets, which they believed had a significant impact on human affairs. Mathematics: Egyptian mathematicians during the time of Thutmose III used a decimal system based on ten, as well as fractions and basic algebra. They were also able to calculate areas and volumes of various shapes. Medicine: Egyptian physicians during the time of Thutmose III made significant advances in medicine. They were skilled in treating injuries and illnesses and used a wide variety of remedies, including herbal medicines and surgical procedures. Technology: During the reign of Thutmose III, the Egyptians continued to develop their technology, including improvements in metalworking, construction techniques, and agriculture. While these advancements may not seem significant by modern standards, they represented an important step forward for ancient Egyptian society and helped to lay the groundwork for future scientific developments. Mary: Were there changes in art styles during the reign of Thutmose III? Yes, there were significant changes in art styles during the reign of Thutmose III. Thutmose III's reign is known as the "Golden Age" of Egyptian art, and it saw a flowering of artistic creativity and innovation. One of the most significant changes in art styles during Thutmose III's reign was the introduction of a more naturalistic and realistic style of representation. This is particularly evident in the depictions of the pharaoh himself, which show him in a more lifelike and dynamic way than in previous periods. Another innovation in art during Thutmose III's reign was the development of the "Amarna style," which was characterized by a more relaxed and informal approach to representation. This style is best exemplified by the famous bust of Queen Nefertiti, which shows her in a more naturalistic and intimate way than previous depictions of royalty. [Note: this occurred during the New Kingdom but not during the reign of Thutmose III] Thutmose III was also responsible for commissioning a large number of public monuments and works of art, which helped to promote his image as a powerful and successful ruler. These included colossal statues, obelisks, and temple reliefs, many of which were decorated with elaborate scenes depicting the pharaoh's military campaigns and religious activities. Overall, the changes in art styles during the reign of Thutmose III helped to usher in a new era of creativity and innovation in Egyptian art, which would continue to influence artists and sculptors for centuries to come. I am still amazed by the level of detail and volume of information ChatGPT provided. The few "hiccups" I pointed out are relatively minor and, for the most part, were included because Thutmose III ruled during the New Kingdom so ChatGPT supplied the information because the beginnings of new innovations are not always clear. Now if they would just give us footnote references!

Anthropological research using ChatGPT: Charity in the ancient world

 Anthropological research using ChatGPT: Charity in the ancient world (Warning: Long Post)

by Mary Harrsch

Silenus with the baby Dionysus - Roman marble copy from Greek original at the Vatican Museum.

One of the readers of my article, “Ancient Eugenics: Much more than selective infanticide”, asked me if there was a major difference between Jews and Christians on the one hand and the Greco-Roman (pagan) world on the other in their views on infanticide. That same day news of a new version (4.0) of ChatGPT was released. So, I decided to give the new research tool a try by asking a series of questions about infanticide and the problem of orphaned children and other disadvantaged individuals in the ancient world, by culture, around the Mediterranean. I decided to restrict my queries to cultures with centralized administrations that I was reasonably sure had been the subjects of extensive excavations and scholarly activities to give ChatGPT the best chance of generating a response based on a reasonable data sample. I also assumed that the mitigation of poverty would have had the greatest effect of reducing the social need for infanticide or the abandonment or sale of children from nuclear families. I found the results I obtained from these queries quite interesting.

Since Christianity was eventually adopted by the Roman state in the 4th century, and some scholars consider it a primary influence on the reduction of infanticide or “child exposure” in Roman society I began with it and received a generalized summary of the issue:

“Infanticide has been a practice in many cultures throughout history for various reasons, such as poverty, disease, or cultural practices.

“The rise of Christianity did lead to a decrease in infanticide in certain cultures [not substantiated by my queries at least], particularly in the Roman Empire. This was due in part to the Christian belief in the sanctity of life, which discouraged the killing of infants. [The “sanctity of life” construct was adopted from Jewish law and scriptures. Although practiced by Jewish converts, this principle contained in the Old Testament was not officially adopted by early Gentile converts until the official “canon” was established in later antiquity.] Additionally, early Christian communities often provided support and assistance to parents who were struggling to care for their children, which may have helped to reduce the number of infants who were abandoned or killed [I am skeptical of this statement. The vast majority of early Christians were slaves and members of the lower classes in Rome. These individuals would not have the resources to advance to fellow struggling families in any large numbers. There may have been a few wealthy converts and these may represent the rare examples of philanthropy pointed to by early Christians in their evangelical efforts. This, of course, changed with the adoption of Christianity by the Roman state in the 4th century CE.]

“However, it is important to note that the decrease in infanticide was not solely due to the rise of Christianity. Other factors, such as changes in social and economic conditions, also played a role in reducing the practice. Additionally, infanticide continued to occur in some Christian societies, particularly in areas where poverty and hardship were prevalent.

“Overall, while the rise of Christianity may have contributed to a decrease in infanticide in some cultures, it is not accurate to say that it was the sole cause of this phenomenon.” - ChatGPT

I began to drill down, then, and evaluate charitable laws and policies of Roman culture and other contemporary Mediterranean cultures to provide social context and insight into practices that may have influenced Roman culture through trade and military contact. So, how did each culture address the problem of poverty?

Roman culture:

Question: How did the ancient Romans address poverty?

“The ancient Romans had a complex system for addressing poverty that evolved over time. In the early Roman Republic, the government provided some basic assistance to the poor through a system of grain distributions known as the "annona." However, this assistance was limited and sporadic.

“As Rome grew in power and wealth, the government's approach to poverty became more sophisticated. The emperor Augustus established a welfare system that provided monthly allowances to eligible citizens, including children, the elderly, and those with disabilities. This system, known as the "alimenta," was funded by taxes on wealthy citizens and provided food, clothing, and education to those in need.

“In addition to government assistance, the Roman elite often engaged in philanthropy as a way of demonstrating their wealth and status. Wealthy individuals would donate money or land to build public facilities such as baths, aqueducts, and hospitals, which could benefit the poor as well as the general population.

“However, poverty remained a significant problem in ancient Rome, and the government's efforts to address it were often limited and uneven. Many poor Romans relied on private charity, begging, or even crime to survive. Despite these challenges, the Roman approach to poverty provides an interesting historical perspective on the ways in which societies have attempted to support those in need.” – ChatGPT

I thought this was a decent high-level summary although it lacked the detail needed for a more comprehensive comparison. So, I asked, “What Roman laws addressed poverty?” and generated some of the detail I was looking for.

“There were several Roman laws and policies that addressed poverty and provided assistance to the poor. Here are some examples:

“Lex Frumentaria: This law, passed in 123 BCE, required the government to distribute grain to the poor at a subsidized price. The amount of grain given to each individual was based on family size and income, with the poorest families receiving the most.

“Lex Caecilia Didia: This law, passed in 98 BCE, required individuals who wanted to propose a new law to first submit it to the Senate for review. This law was intended to prevent laws that would be harmful to the poor from being passed.

“Lex Iunia Norbana: This law, passed in 64 CE, granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who had been born to a free citizen father and had lived in Rome for a certain period of time. This law helped to ensure that more people had access to the legal protections and benefits of Roman citizenship.

“Alimenta: This was a policy introduced by Emperor Trajan in the early 2nd century CE, which provided assistance to poor and orphaned children. The policy involved providing funds to local communities to support the education and upbringing of these children.

“Public works projects: The Roman government also engaged in various public works projects, such as building aqueducts and roads, which provided employment opportunities for the poor.

“Overall, while the Roman government did not have a comprehensive system of social welfare, there were laws and policies in place to address poverty and provide assistance to those in need.” – ChatGPT

Although ChatGPT made an oblique connection between poverty and the rights of Roman citizens, it did not make the more direct connection between poverty and family size so did not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea: This law encouraged marriage and childbearing among Roman citizens. It provided financial incentives for those who married and had children, and imposed penalties on those who remained unmarried or had no children.

However, Augustus' morality laws were aimed at the upper classes because of a falling birth rate he perceived among the elite during his reign. So, I asked ChatGPT if these morality laws applied to all Roman citizens:

"Like many laws in ancient Rome, the morality laws of Augustus did not apply equally to all Roman citizens. The laws were primarily aimed at the upper classes, who were seen as the guardians of traditional Roman values. Wealthy citizens and members of the aristocracy were expected to set an example for the rest of society by following these laws and promoting virtuous behavior.

"At the same time, many aspects of Roman life were regulated by social norms and customs rather than laws. While the morality laws of Augustus were intended to promote certain values, the actual practice of these values varied widely depending on social class, region, and personal circumstances. For example, while the laws encouraged marriage and childbearing, it was not uncommon for wealthy Roman men to engage in extramarital affairs or have children with concubines or slaves.

"In short, the morality laws of Augustus were one aspect of a complex system of social norms, customs, and laws that regulated behavior in ancient Rome. While these laws were intended to apply to all Roman citizens, their actual impact and enforcement varied depending on social status and personal circumstances." - ChatGPT

Since I am trying to evaluate a historical trend and this law would have directly influenced family size and perhaps any propensity to commit infanticide, I asked ChatGPT if Augustus' morality laws were ever repealed or modified.

"Yes, the morality laws of Augustus were modified and repealed over time as political and social conditions changed in Rome.

"During the reigns of Augustus's successors, some of the more restrictive laws regulating marriage and sexual behavior were relaxed. For example, the Lex Iulia de Maritandis Ordinibus was eventually repealed, and restrictions on inter-class marriages were eased.

"Similarly, the laws regarding adultery and sexual morality were modified to reflect changing attitudes toward sexuality and gender roles. Under the emperor Nero, for example, adultery was decriminalized, and same-sex relationships were tolerated to a greater extent.

"However, some of Augustus's morality laws remained in place for centuries, particularly those related to public order and corruption. For example, the Lex Iulia de Vi Publica et Privata continued to be enforced throughout the Roman Empire, and laws against corruption remained on the books for centuries.

"Overall, the morality laws of Augustus were an important part of Roman law and society, but they were not set in stone. Like all laws, they were subject to change over time as political and social conditions shifted, and as attitudes toward morality and behavior evolved." - ChatGPT

Although this response referred to two of the other morality laws of Augustus, it does not mention the Lex Papia Poppaea. So I rephrased my query and asked directly if the Lex Papia Poppaea was ever modified or repealed.

"The Lex Papia Poppaea, which was a set of laws passed by Augustus to promote marriage and childbearing, was modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire.

"Under the emperor Caracalla in the 3rd century CE, the law was modified to provide financial incentives for those who married and had children, regardless of social status. This change was intended to encourage population growth and address the declining birthrate in the Roman Empire.

"In the 4th century CE, the emperor Constantine repealed many of the restrictions on marriage contained in the law. He also introduced new laws that further encouraged marriage and childbearing, such as tax exemptions for families with children.

"Over time, the incentives provided by the Lex Papia Poppaea became less important as the Roman economy shifted from an agrarian to an urban economy. In the late Roman Empire, many of the financial incentives provided by the law were no longer relevant or effective, and the law was eventually repealed. { I would point to the extreme financial exigency of the period.]

"In summary, while the Lex Papia Poppaea played an important role in promoting marriage and childbearing in ancient Rome, its provisions were modified and repealed over time as social and economic conditions changed in the Roman Empire." - ChatGPT

From my perspective, I think the financial incentives contained within the Lex Papia Poppaea would probably have more influence on the behavior of the overall population than religious mandates of a sect that, before Constantine, composed less than 10% of the population. (See "A World Full of Gods" by Professor Keith Hopkins)

Since I'm also comparing pagan practices to Christian/Jewish practices, I also asked:

Did any Roman religion mandate behavior towards children?

"There is no evidence to suggest that any Roman religion mandated specific behavior towards children. However, the concept of pietas, or piety, was an important part of ancient Roman religion and ethics, and it included an expectation of respect and duty towards one's family, including children.

"The Roman family was considered a sacred institution, and the welfare of children was considered a priority. Roman law recognized the rights and responsibilities of parents and children, and parents were expected to provide for their children's basic needs, such as food, shelter, and education.

"There were also a number of customs and traditions associated with Roman family life that emphasized the importance of children. For example, the birth of a child was a significant event, and families often celebrated the arrival of a new child with feasting and gift-giving." - ChatGPT

Now, let’s explore the provisions made to mitigate poverty in surrounding cultures.

Egypt:

“Ancient Egypt had a complex social and economic system, and poverty was a persistent issue for many people, particularly those living in rural areas. The government and religious institutions played a significant role in addressing poverty and providing support to those in need.

“One way that the government addressed poverty was through a system of taxation and redistribution of wealth. Wealthy landowners and merchants were required to pay taxes and contribute to public works projects, such as irrigation systems and temples. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor, as well as resources for the community.

“In addition to taxation, the government also provided support to the poor in the form of food and other basic necessities. Temples and other religious institutions played a significant role in this, as they were often responsible for distributing food and other resources to the needy.

“Charitable giving was also an important part of Egyptian culture, and wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need. This was often done through the construction of public works projects, such as wells or granaries, that benefited the community as a whole.

“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Egypt, the government and religious institutions played an important role in addressing it through a combination of taxation, redistribution of wealth, and charitable giving.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in ancient Egypt?

“There is limited evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, although it may have been rare and not widely accepted. The ancient Egyptians held a high value for children and families, and there are several depictions in art and literature of parents doting on and caring for their children.

“However, there are some references to infanticide in ancient Egyptian texts and some archaeological evidence that suggests the practice occurred in some instances. For example, there are references in some texts to the killing of infants who were deemed illegitimate or who were born to mothers who could not support them. It is also possible that infants were sometimes abandoned or left to die if they were deemed unwanted or if their parents could not afford to care for them.

“Additionally, some archaeological evidence has been found of infant burials that suggest that the infants may have been intentionally killed or left to die. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in ancient Egypt, as the available evidence is limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” – ChatGPT

Persia:

“The Persian Empire had a complex administrative and social system that addressed poverty in various ways. Here are some ways that the Persians addressed poverty:

“Royal charity: The Persian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The royal treasury was used to fund these charitable works.

“Public works projects: The Persian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.

“Land reforms: The Persian kings implemented land reforms that aimed to distribute land more fairly among the population. This allowed more people to own land and provided a means for them to support themselves.

“Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion of the Persian Empire, placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. The religion encouraged followers to engage in acts of charity and to help those in need.

“Taxation: The Persian Empire had a complex tax system that was designed to provide for the welfare of the population. Taxes were collected from the wealthy and redistributed to the poor in the form of food, clothing, and shelter.

“Overall, the Persian Empire had a complex system of governance that aimed to provide for the welfare of the population, including the poor. While poverty still existed in Persia, these measures helped to alleviate some of the worst effects of poverty and ensured that the population had access to basic necessities.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in ancient Persia?

“There is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia. However, the historical record is somewhat limited and there may have been isolated instances of infanticide.

“In general, the Persian Empire had a strong tradition of family values and respect for children, which was reflected in their laws and customs. Children were considered a valuable asset to society and were given special protection and care.

“The Zoroastrian religion, which was the predominant religion in ancient Persia, also placed a high value on the sanctity of life and prohibited the taking of innocent life, including the killing of children.

“In addition, the Persian Empire had a well-developed legal system that recognized the rights of children and protected them from harm. For example, the Persian legal code contained provisions to punish parents who mistreated or neglected their children.

“Overall, while there is little evidence to suggest that infanticide was commonly practiced in ancient Persia, it is possible that isolated instances of the practice may have occurred. However, the strong cultural and religious values placed on family and the sanctity of life suggest that such instances would have been rare and generally condemned by society.” - ChatGPT

Greece:

“Poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, particularly in urban areas where there was a high concentration of people. While there was no single approach to addressing poverty, a number of different strategies were used to provide assistance to the poor and vulnerable.

“One approach to addressing poverty in ancient Greece was through public works projects. This included the construction of infrastructure such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and helped to stimulate economic growth in the region.

“Another approach to addressing poverty was through charitable giving. Wealthy individuals and families were expected to provide support to those in need, often through the provision of food, clothing, and other basic necessities. Charitable giving was seen as a way to demonstrate one's social status and gain the respect of the community.

“Religious institutions also played an important role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece. Temples and other religious organizations provided assistance to the poor, often through the distribution of food and other resources. In addition, some temples operated as banks, providing loans and financial assistance to those in need.

“Finally, the government also played a role in addressing poverty in ancient Greece, although the approach varied depending on the region and time period. In some cases, the government provided direct assistance to the poor, while in others they implemented policies designed to stimulate economic growth and create employment opportunities.

“Overall, while poverty was a persistent issue in ancient Greece, a number of different strategies were used to address it. These included public works projects, charitable giving, support from religious institutions, and government assistance.” - ChatGPT

Did the ancient Greeks practice infanticide?

“There is some evidence to suggest that infanticide was practiced in ancient Greece, particularly in cases where children were born with physical deformities or other disabilities. However, it is important to note that the practice of infanticide was not widespread, and it was generally frowned upon by Greek society.

“The evidence for infanticide in ancient Greece comes primarily from written sources, such as the works of the historian Plutarch and the philosopher Aristotle. These sources suggest that infanticide was sometimes practiced by families who were unable to care for their children or who saw them as a burden.

“However, it is also clear that infanticide was not a socially acceptable practice in ancient Greece. Laws were in place to protect children from harm, and those who were found guilty of infanticide could face severe punishment.

“In addition, many aspects of Greek culture, such as the emphasis on family and community, placed a high value on the sanctity of life, particularly the lives of children. As such, while infanticide may have occurred in ancient Greece, it was generally viewed as a last resort and was not condoned by society as a whole. - ChatGPT

Judea:

“The ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles.

“In the Hebrew Bible, the Torah contains many laws and commandments related to poverty and helping the needy. For example, farmers were required to leave the corners of their fields unharvested so that the poor could gather food, and they were also required to give a portion of their harvest to the poor. There were also laws regarding debt forgiveness and the release of slaves after a certain period of time, which provided some protection for the poor and enslaved.

“In addition to these laws, there were also institutions in ancient Jewish society that were dedicated to helping the poor. For example, there were organizations known as "gemach" or "g'mach" (which stands for "gemilut chasadim," or acts of kindness) that provided interest-free loans to those in need. There were also charitable organizations, known as "tzedakah," which collected donations and distributed them to the poor.

“Furthermore, caring for the poor was seen as a moral obligation for all Jews, and acts of charity were considered to be one of the most important mitzvot (commandments) in Judaism.

“Overall, the ancient Jews had a strong tradition of caring for the poor, which was based on religious and moral principles. Through laws, institutions, and individual acts of charity, the Jewish community worked to alleviate poverty and help those in need." - ChatGPT

Although Assyria was a much older civilization than Rome, I couldn’t help but ask ChatGPT about its attempts to address poverty, especially since it is usually represented as such a brutal culture.

Assyria:

“There is limited information about how the Assyrian Empire addressed poverty, but there are some records and archaeological evidence that suggest that they had measures in place to provide assistance to the poor and needy.

“Royal charity: Assyrian kings engaged in acts of charity towards their subjects, which included providing food, clothing, and shelter to those in need. The annals of the Assyrian kings record instances of royal charity, such as the distribution of food during times of famine or the provision of clothing to soldiers.

“Public works projects: The Assyrian kings also engaged in public works projects, such as the construction of canals, fortresses, and irrigation systems. These projects provided employment opportunities for the poor and contributed to the overall welfare of the population.

“Laws protecting the poor: The Assyrian kings also passed laws protecting the poor from exploitation and mistreatment. For example, there are records of laws that prohibited landlords from evicting tenants who were unable to pay their rent and laws that mandated fair wages for workers.

“Religious institutions: The Assyrian religion placed a strong emphasis on charity and the care of the poor. Temples and religious institutions played a role in providing assistance to the poor, including food, clothing, and shelter.

“Overall, while the Assyrian Empire was known for its military conquests and harsh treatment of conquered peoples, there is evidence to suggest that the Assyrian kings had measures in place to address poverty and provide assistance to the needy.” - ChatGPT

Was infanticide practiced in the Assyrian empire?

“There is limited information about the practice of infanticide in the Assyrian Empire, but there is some evidence to suggest that it was not uncommon.

“Assyrian society was patriarchal, and having male children was highly valued. Female infants were sometimes seen as a burden, as they were not considered as useful for labor or military purposes. Additionally, it was believed that male children had a better chance of carrying on the family line and providing for their parents in old age.

“There are records of Assyrian kings engaging in the practice of infanticide. For example, the annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib record that he ordered the killing of all of his brothers' male children in order to prevent them from challenging his rule. Additionally, there are records of Assyrian soldiers killing infants during military campaigns.

“It is worth noting that infanticide was not unique to the Assyrian Empire, and was practiced in other ancient societies as well. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which infanticide was practiced in Assyria, as the historical records are limited and biased towards the perspectives of the ruling elite.” - ChatGPT

So, it appears to me ChatGPT, responding to increasingly more targeted questions, can produce quite usable information. What was most astonishing to me was how quickly I could gather so much information!

Exploring historical research with modern translation tools

by Mary Harrsch © 2020

As an education technologist I used computer-assisted translation for a couple of decades with mixed success whenever I was faced with research reports I needed to analyze in a language other than English.  Gradually, over the last ten years, however, I found the new tools introduced by Google and the German company, DeepL GmbH based in Cologne to be increasingly more accurate.  This advancement was particularly of interest to me when I decided to focus on Roman archaeology and the early 18th-19th century excavations in Pompeii in my "second act" after retiring from the university. 

First, a short history of machine translation

Machine translation dates as far back as the 9th century CE to an Arabic cryptographer named Al-Kindi who developed techniques for systemic language translation, including cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, and probability and statistics, which are used in modern machine translation.  Other ideas for machine translation were proposed during the Renaissance by such thinkers as René Descartes, who, in 1629,  proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different tongues sharing one symbol.  

The first patents for translating machines using an automatic bilingual dictionary and paper tape was applied for by Georges Artsrouni in the mid-1930s.  But progress was limited until the late 1950s when some of the first computers were developed.  In the meantime, successes in code breaking during World War II and theories about  the universal principles underlying natural language, coupled with computer development, prompted new proposals based on evolving information theory. 

A replica of Alan Turing's "bombe" machine used to crack the 
code used on German Enigma encoding devices during 
World War II.  Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Despite modest successes, though, the problem of semantic ambiguity of words or phrases with more than one meaning plagued the development of high quality machine translation.  Then the ALPAC report was published by the U.S. commissioned Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee in 1966 stating that machine translation was more expensive, less accurate and slower than human translation, and that despite research expenditures, machine translation was not likely to reach the quality of a human translator in the near future.  The report decimated funding and machine translation was virtually abandoned in the U.S. and to a lesser extent in the Soviet Union and the U.K. for more than ten years. In Canada, France and Germany, however, research continued while in the U.S. two companies were eventually founded to provide automated translation services for the Department of Defense.  

As computers became more powerful, however, machine translation capabilities increased dramatically.  Models based on statistical and example-based machine translation were adapted for online use to facilitate global communication and provide the capability for rapid translation of even technical documents and texts using such free tools as Google Translate and DeepL, the German product from the firm in Cologne.

The Hauser in Pompeij Project

During this time I became increasingly interested in learning more about the archaeological remains of a 1st century Roman structure, dubbed the House of the Prince of Naples, in Pompeii. But, I quickly discovered that a comprehensive analysis of the remains published in 1984 was available only in German.  I also searched in vain for a digitized version and found the German hardcopy text, "Hauser in Pompeji (Volume 1): Casa del Principe di Napoli" published by the German Archaeological Institute was now out-of-print and used copies were difficult to locate or prohibitively expensive. I finally found a copy up at the University of Washington and requested it through interlibrary loan.  I decided I would attempt to scan the hard copy and use the latest, much improved, online translation tools to produce an English version of the book.

Atrium of the House of the Prince of Naples in Pompeii
courtesy of Carole Raddato

When I was notified the volume had arrived and went to the university library to retrieve it, I was aghast at its size!  Although it is only 52 pages, the Germans apparently wanted to preserve the precise physical scale of the drawings in the book, so it was produced at a size of 19.6 x 13.6 x 1.2 inches. This made it very unwieldy to handle and  too large to scan with my personal oversize scanner or even the ones available at the university.  Not to be deterred, however, I tried reversing the head of my digital camera tripod so I could use it as a copy stand and photograph each page. 

Camera tripod with head reversed to create
a copy stand for a large book

I knew I could then OCR the resulting images and extract the text. My resulting tests with this approach were successful. To speed up the process, I centered the first right hand page as precisely as I could under the camera then photographed all the right hand pages without having to readjust the book's position between pages.  Then I centered the first left hand page under the camera and photographed all the left hand pages.  

I initially tried to use a sheet of glass to flatten the page and hold it in place but the overhead lights created too much glare on the glass so instead I pulled the page tawt with one hand and used my other hand to trigger remotely the shutter of my Olympus camera using its Blue Tooth connection to my iPhone.  

After I photographed all of the pages, I opened the JPEG for each page in Adobe Photoshop.  To produce as much contrast between text and background as possible (the book was printed on cream-colored paper), I converted the image to black and white with Topaz Labs' BW Effects plug-in Filter and adjusted the histogram for optimum black and white values using Photoshop's built-in Adobe Camera Raw filter.  I also straightened the image if necessary, then saved it first as a .JPG for a text reference when checking OCR accuracy, then exported the images as an Adobe PDF. I then opened the PDF in Microsoft Word 2016 (the latest version I have) and allowed it to use its built-in OCR feature to extract the text and create a Word (DOCX) file.  After proofreading several pages I noticed that the OCR was very accurate except for the footnotes because of their small font size (especially the letters o,e, i,j, and rn in place of m). So I decided to forgo proofing each page word for word except the footnotes to reduce my eye strain. I thought I would discover any OCR mistakes in the body of the text anyway when I translated a page and the translator could not make out a word, and that proved to be the case.

Translation finally begins

Now with the extracted text I was finally able to begin my translation. I started out using Google Translate then I compared its results with those of the free German translator, DeepL since I was translating mostly German except for the artifact find summaries that were left in their original 19th century Italian. As I worked, I noticed DeepL seemed to have a slight edge over Google Translate with the German text (understandable) although they were pretty comparable when translating Italian.  But, DeepL offers a Windows 10 add-in tool that can be activated by highlighting the passage you wish to translate then pressing Cntrl-C twice.  This helped to speed things up. The other really nice thing about DeepL is the ability to click on a word that seems weird to you in the English pane and a list pops up of other words it could mean in a particular context.  I was able to make some sentences sound more natural using this feature.  So I began using DeepL as my default translator and used Google Translate to verify particularly awkward passages.  Of course each time I reached a finds summary in Italian instead of German I had to translate that portion separately  because neither of the  translators could switch from one language to another within the same selection.

When translating the Italian find summaries from the late 19th century, however, I also encountered words that were either unique to Italian archaeologists or were no longer in use in modern Italian.  Fortunately, one of my Facebook friends majored in Italian at university and he was quite helpful in teasing out the meanings of some of the terms used.  He told me that part of the problem was that the Italian used in the excavation report appeared to be a regional dialect, and not the modern Tuscan version presently taught in universities.  Furthermore, the Italian archaeologists used special words, such as procoe, lagena, oleare, odorino, cocciopesto, punteggiato regolare,  that had no modern definition in current bilingual dictionaries.  

Architectural terms were also used by the German archaeologists that I had not encountered before either, such as lesbian cyma, dentil cornice (that kept being translated as "tooth-cut" cornice) and socle (that kept being translated as "base" which is descriptive of the architectural feature but not the proper term.)  So, as I worked I began compiling a glossary of these terms and researched their definitions which I later added as an addedum to my English version since the original text did not include a glossary.

The original text also included examples of both Latin and Greek "tituli picti", inscriptions on ancient amphora and other artifacts, using ancient letters not in my font collection.  For these references, I ended up just photographing them separately and embedding them in the text as images rather than text.

Example of "tituli picti" on an amphora in
The House of the Prince of Naples 

Footnote numbers also interfered with the translation.  At first I removed them but I wouldn't do that again since the placement of adjectives and adverbs is different in German (and Italian) than in English so replacing the footnotes afterwards was difficult because I couldn't just count sentences. 

Translators also don't always reword something in the proper English order either and I would have to read through the snippet I was translating and reword phrases with adverbs and adjectives to place them in the proper order to make the sentence read naturally from an English language perspective. 

To get around the problem with the superscripted footnote numbers that the translators could not understand, I added a space before the footnote number in the German pane of the translator so the translator would not become confused when translating the preceding word and would pass the number intact through to the English pane.  This gave me the indicator I needed to insert a footnote with Word after the translation was completed.

Capitalization was also an issue since the Germans capitalize all nouns not just proper nouns and many of these were passed through the translator.  I ended up using Word's search and replace feature after I completed the translation to correct a number of incorrect capitalizations.

The original text was lavishly illustrated and I wanted the English version illustrated as well.    So, I photographed each image separately without it's related caption then translated the German caption and inserted the caption in English with Word.  Some of the images were  graphics with German labels that required me to "paint out" the German references in Photoshop and replace them with English using the Text tool.  

I decided not to place all the images at the end of the text like Professor Strocka did. Instead I context mapped each image to the appropriate place in the narrative then allowed Word to assign a figure number and simply referred to the original plate number in the image caption.  I also added some Creative Content-licensed images that were not available at the time the book was originally published to illustrate some of the finds and painting comparisons made with other artwork elsewhere in Pompeii. 

 

I also did not translate or include the original index because a digital version can be searched at any point in the text.  I also did not bother to include the table of grayscale to color matrix for the grisailles produced for the interior paintings. Whenever you photograph a black and white image with a digital camera, the camera is calibrated to produce the image with an algorithm to create neutral gray for the midpoint of the visual scale.  Therefore, the precise gray scale values of my digital images would have been altered and no longer match the matrix included in the original text. 

Professor Strocka spent a great deal of effort describing the painted decorations in each room but I found his verbal descriptions rather difficult to follow. Although I did translate these descriptions and include them in the English version, I think a detailed map of images accompanied by a discussion of possible motivations for mythological content or style classification would be more easily understood.  In the book's comparisons of the decor of the house with other documented iconography elsewhere in Pompeii, I think visual comparisons of actual images would have been more effective as well. That is why I hunted for at least some of those that still exist to augment that section of the text.

With this much effort, did I actually learn anything particularly significant? Definitely!  When I translated the artifact find summaries, I discovered three surgical instruments and a mortar and pestle were found in the original excavations. I also learned of the intriguing find of human skeletal remains in the cubiculum (bedroom) flanking the main entrance designated as entrance 8.  Further research revealed the existence of a list of houses in Pompeii where surgical instruments were found and, researchers suspect, may have been homes of physicians.  The House of the Prince of Naples was not on the list and appears to have been overlooked. 

Professor Strocka's team clearly focused on the construction aspects of the house and on full documentation of any surviving decorations.  Household inventory, however, was not evaluated, but simply included from original late 19th century excavation records.  I discovered through additional research that small finds, especially those of a non-luxury nature, were viewed with little interest by archaeologists during the late 1800s.  Furthermore, the House of the Prince of Naples was far from an undisturbed site. Three so-called "robber" holes were found in the cubiciulum containing the skeleton when it was eventually excavated in 1896-1898.  Artifacts could have been carried away by salvaging owners shortly after the eruption, or looters, either in antiquity or in modern times, who could have pilfered more valuable objects. The other potential "contamination" of the finds was the staged "excavation" by the Prince and Princess of Naples in 1898. We are led to believe the original excavators merely suspected the presence of finds in certain rooms of the structure and left them in situ for discovery by the royals.  But we must recognize the obvious connections between wealthy patrons and the archaeologists who desired to continue site exploration. If the finds were, in fact, "planted" for the royals to find, it is of no consequence if they were originally found in the structure by the original excavation team, although it would reduce the value any analysis of find assemblages and room function.  If, however, the finds were supplemented from the substantial inventory of finds recovered previously from other structures in Pompeii and had no connection with this structure, future comparisons of this structure with others possibly occupied by residents engaged in a similar occupation or in a similar social position would be tainted. 

At least apparently overlooked information was obtained from the project that could seed further research.  The results of this project can be reviewed here in .pdf form:

https://www.academia.edu/43116942/Houses_in_Pompeii_The_House_of_the_Prince_of_Naples_1st_English_translation_

The Challenge Continues

Recently, I have begun another project, an article about the excavation of the House of Sallust (originally the House of Acteon) conducted between 1805 and 1809.  The excavation report was published in Italian as Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia. Leaping back in time another 80 years from the excavation reports of my first translation, though, I have found this excavation journal has proved even more challenging.  Some of the words used in it are unknown by modern translators.  On top of this, of course, are the special names given to the objects recovered by the early archaeologists that have no modern equivalent.  I also discovered spelling differences that cause translation problems, too.  Some words in the early 1800s are spelled with a "j" instead of an "i"  such as operaj which is now operai (workers) or caldaja which is now spelled caldaia (boiler).  Fortunately, when the translation fails, I can usually isolate the word that is problematic and "sometimes" the Italian-English dictionary will find a word that is the closest match and I can tease out the meaning from it.

At least with this project, I did not have to photograph and OCR anything.  I found a copy up on Google Play and can highlight a section of the text and select COPY from the popup menu then paste it into DeepL or Google translate.  The only problem this causes is that hyphenated words at the end of a sentence are output with only a space instead of a dash so when I paste the section into DeepL I then have to go back and check for line breaks in the original text, find them in the DeepL copy and remove the space so the translator identifies the complete word.  Using Google Play you also have the ability to select TRANSLATE from the popup menu but the result is less than optimal.  It will give you sort of the gist of what is being said but is not as accurate as I need, especially for the list of small finds that often includes specialized words.

The antiquated font used in the original text also causes problems with translation, especially the number 1 (the translators think its a 4) and fractions which I have to manually correct. 

In the early 19th century, Italy had not yet converted to the metric system either so measurements are given with the abbreviations: on. (oncia which equals .73 in.), pal. (palmo, which I assume is the palmo of Naples at 10.381 in. and not the palmo of the Papal States at the time which ranges from 8.79 to 8.347) and occasionally min. (minuti = .146 in. since 5 min. = 1 on.)  

As I am primarily focused on the years 1804-1809, I will translate that portion of the text and make it available when I am finished.

Tools needed for a translation project using an original hardcopy:

Adobe Photoshop or image editor with the ability to Export as .PDF

Microsoft Word 2016 or newer (built-in OCR and PDF export capability)

DeepL Translator (free) & DeepL Windows 10 add-in translator (free)

https://www.deepl.com/translator

Google Translate (free)

https://translate.google.com/

Pre-metric list of Italian units of measurement:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_units_of_measurement

German to English online dictionary (free)

https://dictionary.reverso.net/german-english/

Italian to English online dictionary (free)

https://dictionary.reverso.net/italian-english/

Latin to English online dictionary (free)

http://www.treccani.it/

and some great bi-lingual friends on Facebook!

Machine Translation History References:

DuPont, Quinn (January 2018). "The Cryptological Origins of Machine Translation: From al-Kindi to Weaver". Amodern (8).

Knowlson, James (1975). UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE SCHEMES IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE 1600-1800 ISBN 978-4-87502-214-5

White, John S. (31 July 2003). Envisioning Machine Translation in the Information Future: 4th Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas, AMTA 2000, Cuernavaca, Mexico, October 10-14, 2000 Proceedings. Springer. ISBN 9783540399650.

"Google Switches to Its Own Translation System". 22 October 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2018.